Monday, January 27, 2020

Differences of Skills in Work and Skills in Social Settings

Differences of Skills in Work and Skills in Social Settings WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SKILL IN THE PERSON, SKILL IN THE JOB AND SKILL IN THE SOCIAL SETTING AND WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT. A quarter century ago skill was generally referred to as manual dexterity (tool usage or control) and to some understanding of underpinning bodies of theory and knowledge associated with the exercise of particular trades or occupations. Hence, there has been growing priority of softer social skills and personal attributes such as manner, deportment, appearance, dress sense, accent, ability to get on with people and self confidence (Payne, 1999; Grugulis et al, 2004). As one employee reports one recruit attitude (Calligham and Thompson, 2002:240). These attributes and attitudes are being referred to as skills (Payne, 1999 cited in Stephen Bach, 2007). One of the most difficult to describe and hard to define concept is skill (Warhurst, Grugulis and Keep, 2004), in a survey carried out by (Francis and Penn, 1994), they concluded that different occupational groups will categorize skill in different ways, which suggests that a persons conception of skill is largely based on his or her own experiences of employment. Therefore, this essay aims at defining the approaches of skills and also what these approaches are and why it is fundamental in analyzing skill. WHAT IS SKILL? Skill is defined as the expertise, ability or competence to undertake specific activities often acquired through formal instruction or work experience (Brown et al, 2001). The dictionary definition of skill reveals the complexity of the concept. At the core of all definitions is the idea of competence or proficiency-the ability to do something well. The word encompasses both mental and physical proficiency meaning skill implies understanding or knowledge, it also implies physical dexterity. In distinguishing between skill as mundane accomplishment and skill as virtuosity will help give theoretical insights into the mechanisms that underlie skilled activities, failure to distinguish between the two senses of the word can lead to conceptual confusion (Attewell, 1990). Attewells research indicates four distinct sociological notions of skill which yields different images of skill. Positivist Ethno-methodological Weberian Marxist Positivism This refers to those who treat skill as an attribute amenable to qualitative measurement and believe that this attribute has an objective character independent of the observer. With this assumption, at the outset positivists are faced with two issues: First, should skill be treated as a measureable attribute of persons or jobs/tasks (Spenner, 1983)? Second, should apparently diverse or qualitatively different skills be rendered commensurate and hence measurable? Is there a yardstick that underlies varied skills? (Attewell, 1990). Ethno-methodological This is completely at odds with the positivists assumptions about complexity, routine, and conscious analysis, it offers a view of human activity and hence, skills.ÂÂ   The core of this perspective is the idea that all human activity, even the most mundane, is quite complex. Things such as walking, crossing the road and carrying on a conversation that everyone does, are amazing accomplishments requiring a complex coordination of perception, movement, and decision, a myriad of choices, and a multitude of skills (Garfinkel, 1969). The Weberian School This school tries to understand the conditions under which occupations are socially demarked as skilled and the processes by which some jobs come to command higher standing than others. This school points that tasks complexity becomes important as it creates uncertainty as to whether and how the task can be accomplished. This then becomes the core around which practitioners build claims to skill, even when their knowledge and techniques are modest (Attewell, 1990). The Marxist School This school enters skill from three areas which are: in the labor theory of value, in debates concerning the labor aristocracy, and in the theory of alienation and technological change. However it would be misleading to suggest that classical Marxist has a well articulated theory of skill as such. Marx and Engels writings provide theoretical hints and some neo-Marxists have built upon these. Hence, many contemporary Marxists treat skill as a common sense category which does not require explication, while other neo-Marxists treatments of skill frequently shade into either positivist or social constructionist thinking (Attewell, 1990). APRROACHES TO THE ANALYSIS OF SKILL There are three approaches to the analysis of skill as shown in (Table 1). Skill in the person Skill in the job Skill in the setting Focus Principal Area of Concern Typical Method of Analysis Typically Adopted by: Person Individual attributes acquired through: Education Qualification Training Experience Questionnaire surveys Aptitude test / Experiments Economists Psychologists Job Task requirements Complexity Discretion Job analysis Job evaluation Occupational Psychologists Management theorists Industrial / Employment Relations theorists Setting Social relations Case studies of industries and occupations Ethnographic studies of workplaces Social historians Sociologist Table 1: Skill approaches (Source: Noon M. Blyton P., 2002) Skill in the person In this aspect, the skill centers on the quality possessed by the individual through knowledge, dexterity, judgment, linguistic ability which is accumulated as a result of education, training and experience (Noon and Bylton, 2002). Skill that focuses on the person often attempts to identify individual attributes and qualities and seek to measure these by the use of aptitude test under experimental conditions. Psychologists agree with this approach and view it as an independent variable (Vallas, 1990). Hence, questionnaires might be distributed to assess the individuals education, training and experience which could serve as a proxy for skill- a method mostly used by economists (Cockburn, 1983). Some commentators have argued that there is a need to broaden the definition of skill in the person by labeling certain personal characteristics as skills. Warhurst, Grugulis and Keep (2004) points that attitudes, character traits and predispositions are being described by employers as skills required and they lacking in the labor market. Lafer (2004) argues that a skill is a quality learned or developed by individuals that will secure them a living, however, many of the new skills such as punctuality, appearance, manner e.t.c. are not skills because alone, they cannot secure an individual a living wage although they might be prerequisite for getting a job in the first place and are also required in order to remain in employment. Lafer points that the consequence of broadening the definition of skill means the concept of skill in the person becomes increasingly meaningless. Skill in the person is very essential in the labor market, as Becker (1964) argues that in a market economy, an individuals human capital will determine his or her value as an employee. An individual can choose to increase their human capital through taking advantage of educational opportunities and training or they can as well choose to ignore these opportunities and as such lower their relative value in the labor market. This approach is typified of human capital theorist, they point that the responsibility for success in work lies with the individual and they raise the notion of meritocratic society, where individual effort is rewarded (Noon and Blyton, 2002). Skill in the job In this case, the focus is on assessing the skill required by the job rather than the skill possessed by the individual doing the job. Sociologist agrees with this approach and view skill as a dependent variable (Vallas, 1990). Attention is placed on the complexity of the tasks required to perform a job and the extent of discretion in the job which is of keen interest to individual/employment relation theorist. According to Noon and Blyton, (2002), the more complex the task required by the job, the more skilled the job is. There is however, need to measure the extent of complexity so as to arrive at a skill level. Hence, different jobs could be reflected in systems of status and remuneration which takes the form of job evaluation schemes. Discretion is of great importance in a job. Discretion involves choosing between alternatives required by an activity. The greater the number of decisions required by an activity, the greater the skill level. The more the employee is able to exercise his/her judgment, then the more skilled a task may be said to be. Therefore, examining the amount of rules employees are obliged to follow will serve as an assessment of the skill level: the more rules, the less scope for discretion and the lower their skill will be judged to be. Discretion is the key element of job skill. It grants workers the space to develop their expertise and to exercise judgment and features heavily in academic attempts to theorize skill (Grugulis, 2007). Feature of Skilled Work Identified as Important Most Likely to be Identified as Important by: Apprenticeship Older, male, manual workers (particularly those processing apprenticeship qualifications) Training Younger, female, public-sector service employees (particularly those processing higher level qualifications) Qualifications Women (particularly in retail distribution). Younger respondents people with lower level qualification High Abilities Men People with higher level qualification Experience No specific group Table 2: Based on Francis and Pen (1994). The survey comprised of nine hundred and eighty seven adults aged between 20 and 60, and was undertaken in Rochdale, U.K. in 1986. (Source: Noon M. And Blyton P., 2002) Education, apprenticeship, training and qualification all focus on developing and maintaining individual skill. Cockburn (1983) and Littler (1982) have argued that skill is also an aspect of jobs and work can be designed to make use of demand, develop and deploy skills just as it can also minimize the need for skill (Grugulis, 2007). When individual possess skill in the job it may enhance organizational benefits. It ensures consistency of product; work is been completed quickly and satisfactory. Workers with appropriate skill will know about the product they are producing and make decisions on how they might best work or judge the quality of their labor. It is important to note that as individuals gain knowledge of the organization they work in their level of skill increases by seeing the way their system operates, experience problems been solved successfully and learn which of their colleagues to approach with certain requests. Felstead et als (2000) analysis of survey data reveals that even when respondents have held the same job for five years there is still an increasing demand for skills suggesting that workers gain in skills and experience over time. In addition, skill in the individual and skill in the job are closely linked. Hence, skill is important to an employer because an employer cannot employ an individual that does not have the skill required in the job. Skill in the setting The definition of skill in the social setting is Cockburns 1983 third element. Individual status or group may protect skill, in same way as skill itself confers status. This means to an extent, skill, status and control are necessarily linked; expertise may require control over work and this brings with it higher status. Those aspects of social life that do not relate with skill but confer to status, impacts on the way skill is been perceived (Grugulis, 2007). Skills are socially and politically negotiated and it reflects the power and influence of diverse interest groups. As Sadler (1970:23) has observed, skill is to a considerable extent determined by social factors present in the work situation and in the occupational culture at large [and therefore includes] the evaluations placed on particular kinds of activity and on particular classes of individual and the actions of organized pressure groups directed at safeguarding the earnings and job security of particular trades and professions (Noon and Blyton, 2002). This then means skill in the social setting is important as it create room for protectionism; certain groups want to protect their skills in order to form a particular status. Social setting can be viewed from the notion of social closure which is one fundamental concept of sociology as defined by Weber (1947) and elaborated by Parkin (1979) and Kreckel (1980). Social Closure or Skilled Status The total process of occupational social closure is composed of three interacting sub-processes (see Fig.1). An ideological process: in this case individuals recognise a shared set of values, beliefs and reinforce these symbolically. A political process, whereby group members act collectively, combines their resources in pursuit of common goals. A material process, whereby members of the group seek to appropriate the tools and technology to the work process and control or influence the work organisation. CONCLUSION As a result of the different theoretical perspective of skill, there has been little consensus about the way skill should be assessed and, indeed different perspective tend to base their argument upon different concepts of skill (Attwell, 1990; Spenner, 1990; Vallas, 1990; Gallie, 1991). This has made the issue very controversial. However, the different meaning of skill centers on the three approaches above- skill in the person, skill in the job and skill in social setting. Hence, there are still unanswered questions about skill. What is the generally acceptable definition of skill? as work is changing continually, hence, demanding different abilities. Are people becoming deskilled or up skilled? REFERENCES Attwell, P. (1990). What is Skill?ÂÂ   Work and Occupations. Vol. 17, No. 4, pp 422-443. Brown, P; Green, A.ÂÂ   and Lauder, H. (2001). High Skills. Oxford University Press. Keep, E. (2005). Skills, training and the quest for the Holy Grail of influence and status in Bach, S. (ed) Managing Human Resources: Personnel Management in Transition 4th edition Oxford: Blackwell. Grugulis, I. (2007). Skills, Training and Human Resource Development. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Noon, M. and Blyton, P. (2002). The Realities of Work. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Vallas, S.P. (1990). The concept of skill: a critical review Work and Occupations Vol 17, No. 4, pp 379-398. Warhurst, C., Grugulis, I. And Keep, E. (2004). The Skills that Matter. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Sunday, January 19, 2020

scarlet letter :: essays research papers

Summer Reading: The Scarlet Letter In the novel The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne symbolism is prevalent, understanding symbolism is necessary for understanding Hawthorne’s novels. The rosebush is a symbol in the novel. It is rendered through the characters of Hester and Pearl in how they are perceived by the people. Hester Prynne has been convicted of being an adulteress. She is put on a scaffold as a form of public humiliation and told to wear a Scarlet A on her breast to identify herself with shame. Hester stands on the scaffold for three hours. As she stands, she looks around at the crowd of people. Inside she is shameful but to the onlookers she appears proud. The rosebush also from a distance looks majestic and alive but as one gets closer, its thorns are revealed. Hester, like the rosebush, is very pretty and majestic but as one gets closer the Scarlet A of an adulteress is revealed. In the wild, rosebushes use their thorns to keep predators away. Hester and Pearl are like rosebushes because they try to keep people at a distance from them. As Pearl grows up she becomes a very pretty, young girl as her mother is. She is also faced with the reality that she was born out of wedlock. Pearl develops a rude, annoying personality because she has never had anyone that has wanted to be close to her because of her predestined status in the community. Before she has even grown up she is known as an inferior member of society. Her personality is her protection, just as thorns on a rosebush protect the flowers. Hester uses her Scarlet A to keep Hester from having anyone close to her. Her past has kept her from wanting anyone to try and pry into her business. She would rather people stay away from her and her family to prevent any more gossip or talk about her. However, by the novel's end, Hester has become a proto-feminist mother figure to the women of the community. The sham e attached to her scarlet letter is long gone. Women recognize that her punishment stemmed in part from the town fathers' sexism, and they come to Hester seeking shelter from the sexist forces under which they themselves suffer. Throughout The Scarlet Letter Hester is portrayed as an intelligent, capable, but not necessarily extraordinary, woman. A rosebush too, is portrayed as being strong yet beautiful plant.

Saturday, January 11, 2020

The Appeal and Popularity of the Bournemouth Beach

Bournemouth ranks as one of the most popular resorts on the south coast of England. It has much to offer any holiday-maker, as the town can boast a range of attractions and facilities to cater for nearly every taste. Bournemouth also possesses some beautiful beaches, with golden sands and safe bathing which are frequently backed by majestic cliffs and a promenade. The main features The core feature of the Beach is of course the Sea with its seven miles of golden sand. Bournemouth beach has a high standard of bathing safety, as there are ‘KidZone' areas and emergency lifesaving Perry buoys at regular intervals. RNLI Beach Rescue provides 7 day a week lifeguard service from Southbourne to Sandbanks between May and September, which is augmented by 5 voluntary lifesaving clubs at weekends and public holidays. The beach is patrolled by beach wardens over the summer and by full time, first aid trained inspectors throughout the year. During the bathing season 2003 the Environment Agency was monitoring bathing water quality all along the coast on a weekly basis; the Partnership's main interest, of course, is the quality of the bathing water at Bournemouth Pier. The beach is cleaned daily during the summer, weekly out of season. Areas of the beach have been designated glass free and can-recycling bins are provided. Dogs are allowed on parts throughout the year though they are banned from certain areas from May to September. The secondary features Beach Facilities There are many excellent facilities available along Bournemouth's beaches. These include toilets with access for disabled visitors, first aid posts, lost children centres and information offices. Catering facilities like â€Å"Harry Ramsden's World Famous Fish and Chips† (Restaurant and Takeaway), â€Å"KFC† and â€Å"Hot Rocks† serve drinks, hot and cold snacks and meals. Other entertainment features include the Amusements Arcade, where you can find all sorts of gambling and computer games. Thrill seekers can hop on the Simulator ride by the Pier. The leisure simulator uses the sophisticated technology previously developed for the training simulators used by tank drivers and astronauts to provide a new form of entertainment, which is enjoyable, exciting and yet completely safe. The Oceanarium is a fully interactive experience with touch screen games, feeding demonstrations and talks, plasma screen documentaries, walk-through underwater tunnel and exhibits to help you discover more about this fascinating underwater world. It brings you face to face with marine life from the furthest reaches of the globe. The IMAX offers the most advanced and compelling film experience in the world. Seeing a film at an IMAX theatre is the perfect group event – whether it is a birthday party, corporate outing or school trip. Every year more than 70 million people visit an IMAX theatre to see a film and over 96% would recommend it to their friends and family. The Pier Theatre, Bournemouth is a purpose built proscenium theatre completed in 1960. The foyer houses a small confectionery kiosk, box-office and public toilets. Disabled access is possible by arrangement through the box office. A Deaf Loop (induction) System is in operation. A unisex disabled toilet is available. Disabled Parking is available by arrangement with the manager. The Pier Bar is adjoining the Theatre and is operated by Bournemouth Services. One of the most popular and certainly most distinctive features of the Seafront is the land train, which carries more than 260,000 passengers a year. Six Zigzag paths connect the beach to the service road above. Three pairs of Cliff lifts run up and down the cliff all day long throughout the season. Visible from literally miles away, there are exciting opportunities to brand the lifts – and the lift stations. With 2100 Deckchairs, you have an exceptional opportunity to improve the bottom line, with advertising that can't fail to be noticed. Located at intervals along the beach, there are 28 Bastions with free shower facilities. Close to the beach are the Gardens, which are an idea haven from the bussing streets of Bournemouth. Candle light displays and lights lead you down to the seafront where in the summer months you can see the firework displays. The ‘Free spirit of Bournemouth' balloon ascends above Bournemouth to give you a birds eye view of Bournemouth town centre and the beach. The gardens also have a pavilion where brass bands play daily to an audience in the gardens. The Russell-Cotes-Museum is a very individualistic gallery, containing the personal collection of art formed by Sir Merton and Lady Russell-Cotes presented to the town of Bournemouth and opened to the public in 1919. Seaside Activities Swimming (watercraft free zones at certain beaches), sailing, fishing, surfing, canoeing, jet skiing, windsurfing, power boating, pedalo hire, beach hut hire and water skiing. Areas or the beach have been zoned as No Smoking, Kidzone, and Can-zone recycling areas. Firework displays are held on Bournemouth Pier every Friday night between July 26th and August 30th. Bournemouth Carnival and Regatta is traditionally held during the first week of August. Wildlife and Walks A three-kilometre undercliff walk leads from Fisherman's Walk east to Hengistbury Head. The seafront promenade is 10km long stretching from Southbourne to Alum Chine and then on to Sandbanks. A cycle route has been introduced along the promenade. Pedestrians always have right of way and from June to September and cycling is only permitted between 7pm and 10am. The Bournemouth cliffs provide an ideal habitat for the nationally rare sand lizard and smooth snake, as well as many plant species. Parking Roadside parking along the overcliff drive. Various pay and display carparks, including the Undercliff Car Park on the beach with access at Boscombe Pier. Public Transport Bournemouth coach and train station is linked to the town centre and all of the beaches by yellow buses. Once at the seafront a land train service operates along the promenade between Hengistbury Head and Alum Chine, stopping at all beaches and also the cliff lifts. Visitor numbers and Types of visits: â€Å"Bournemouth Seafront is, and has always been, a major tourism attraction. Bournemouth as a resort attracts around four million visitors each year (2.3 million day visitors; 1.7 million staying visitors). It is estimated that over 20,000 people are directly employed in tourism related businesses and that tourism is worth à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½350 million a year to Bournemouth's economy.† â€Å"The main tourist season begins with the Spring Bank Holiday and peaks during the school summer holiday period of mid July to early September. All other public and school holidays, such as Easter, are also busy tourist periods on the Seafront.† Types of visitors: At present, 70% of seaside visitors are elderly and less affluent, which means that they spend very little money during their stay, so Bournemouth had to attract a different type of customer. Many small attractions were opened, in order to serve different types of tourists, in particular children, as they brought together people from all different backgrounds, so places such as Putlake Adventure farm and the Oceanarium were opened. Bournemouth also has 2,000 acres of formal gardens, which are frequently judged as the best in Britain, and serve as an attraction for the older generation of visitors. The present pier, which was built in 1880, incorporates a theatre, restaurants, a disco and amusement arcades, which together form Bournemouth's most popular attraction. Bournemouth has relied upon its reputation to bring in the tourists and therefore it has a very good record: In 1996 it was named as â€Å"The World's Cleanest and Greenest City. It has also received Blue Flag Beach Awards every year since 1990 and since 1999 has been awarded the Green Flag Award. Three times since 1991, it has been the winner of Britain in Bloom and was Europe's Floral Champion in 1995. With the building of the Bournemouth International Conference Centre, many important conferences have brought attention to the town, these include several political party conferences, and brings in lots of business for the hotels and shops. The main problem with seaside resorts is the fact that their custom is seasonal, this can be seen in the newspapers where there are advertisements for cheap rates in the hotels, for example Sun Court Hotel offers à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½30 per person per night at the moment, as it is the end of the season. The way this is combated is by the use of the conference centre, which tries to bring business in almost all year round, for example, the Conservative party conference is always held at the end of the season, as the season is then extended for an extra week. Poole relies on recreation in its harbour for its business. 60,000 new houses are to be built in the area by 2010, as it is doing so well. Lots of visitors go across on the sandbanks ferry to Studland where 95% of visitors go to beach. In Poole Harbour, sailing and windsurfing take place, while conservation also takes place with SSSI's for the dunes, mudflats and mines, which bats have inhabited. Swanage has also suffered a decrease in its custom since the 1970's: a total of 3,200 beds in hotels and guesthouses have now been reduced to a total of 1,900. With a population of 9,170, there are a total of 9355 beds available for visitors, with a quarter of a million visitors capable of being accommodated in the whole year, although the main season is 26 weeks long. Despite a large number of visitors, although decreasing, the average day visitor spends à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9, which is not enough to keep a community running. Therefore, the total number of beds is still set to decrease, as the only real attractions are the Swanage railway, which is now being used for park and ride to Corfe castle, and Durlston Country Park, which receives 150,000 visitors. Despite not being a National Park and a decreasing popularity of seaside resorts, except among the retired population, Dorset seems to be surviving. Some areas do seem to be â€Å"thriving†, although a question of their future does hang over areas such as Swanage. Dorset has a number of attractions that keep it a popular location for visitors, however, whether it is thriving or not is a big question, as whereas places such as Bournemouth are doing very well, others are not doing so well.

Friday, January 3, 2020

Teen Depression The Problem Of Teenage Depression, And...

Teen depression is a definite topic most people are unaware of and depression is a worldwide issue and is the leading disability. Depression can lead to many things, from anxiety to thoughts of suicide. Things like social media is a big cause of depression. Everyone has those days where they are feeling sad or maybe even just having a bad day. Sometimes, it goes even more downhill. When it turns into something major, it becomes a real problem. Some people ignore the issue, brushing it off as a â€Å"phase,† but it is more than that. Some might be uncomfortable to touch on the subject, some might not even care enough. Depression is a real issue in today’s society and people need to be more educated, open minded, and aware of this subject.†¦show more content†¦Especially when teens are on their phone too much, which is more alone time and less social time. For example, â€Å"A similar study done at the University of Houston also found that this comparison behavi or on social media was linked to more feelings of loneliness and isolation,† (Melissa Carroll 1). The more time you spend on social media equals to the more time you spend by yourself. Which makes it feel disconnecting in a senses making it very vulnerable to experience depression or an episode of depression. Also, looking at what other people are doing on sites makes it very easy to feel left out or make it seem that what they’re doing makes the viewer’s life less eventful and sad in a sense. Depression can also lead to a whole number of problems for teens. It can lead teens to abuse drugs or have thoughts of suicide. In this article by (G.Harper), â€Å"One recent study found that psychiatric disorders in adolescents, especially major depression, make high-risk sexual behaviors and substance abuse more likely.† This article further proves that depression does motivate teens to participate in making more bad decisions and doing illegal drugs, which might lead to thoughts of committing suicide. Suicide is a major problem and depression is a big factor in causing it because, â€Å"Teens experiencing depression are 12 times more likely to attempt suicide than teens not experiencing depression and greater than half who complete suicide had majorShow MoreRelatedTeenage Depression And Teen Depression792 Words   |  4 Pages Teen depression, which is also known as adolescent depression, is a growing problem in today’s society. Depression among teenagers is overlooked by many and is often mistaken for â€Å"normal† teenage behavior. This mental illness is one of the most common psychiatric disorders. 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